Major Sub-Disciplines of Geography

The field of geography is a vast and wondrous academic field with thousands of researchers working in dozens of interesting sub-disciplines or branches of geography. There is a branch of geography for just about any subject on Earth. In an effort to acquaint the reader with the diversity of the branches of geography, we summarize many below. Human Geography Many branches of geography are found within human geography, a major branch of geography that studies people and their interaction with the earth and with their organization of space on the earths surface. Economic GeographyEconomic geographers examine the distribution of production and distribution of goods, the distribution of wealth, and the spatial structure of economic conditions.Population GeographyPopulation geography is often equated with demography but population geography is more than just patterns of birth, death, and marriage. Population geographers are concerned with the distribution, migration, and growth of population in geographic areas.Geography of ReligionsThis branch of geography studies the geographic distribution of religious groups, their cultures, and built environments.Medical GeographyMedical geographers study the geographic distribution of disease (including epidemics and pandemics), illness, death and health care.Recreation, Tourism, and Sport GeographyThe study of leisure-time activities and their impact on local environments. As tourism is one of the worlds largest industries, it involves a great number of people making very temporary migrations and is thus of great interest to geographers.Military GeographyPractitioners of military geography are most often found in the military but the branch looks not only at the geographic distribution of military facilities and troops but also utilizes geographic tools to develop military solutions.Political GeographyPolitical geography investigates all aspects of boundaries, country, state, and national development, international organizations, diplomacy, internal country subdivisions, voting, and more.Agricultural and Rural GeographyGeographers in this branch study agriculture and rural settlement, the distribution of agriculture and the geographic movement and access to agricultural products, and land use in rural areas.Transportation GeographyTransportation geographers research transportation networks (both private and public) and the use of those networks for moving people and goods.Urban GeographyThe branch of urban geography investigates the location, structure, development, and growth of c ities — from tiny village to huge megalopolis. Physical Geography Physical geography is another major branch of geography. It is concerned with the natural features on or near the surface of the earth. BiogeographyBiographers study the geographic distribution of plants and animals on the earth in the subject known as biogeography.Water ResourcesGeographers working in the water resources branch of geography look at the distribution and use of water across the planet within the hydrologic cycle and of human-developed systems for water storage, distribution, and use.ClimateClimate geographers investigate the distribution of long-term weather patterns and activities of the earths atmosphere.Global ChangeGeographers researching global change explore the long-term changes occurring to planet Earth based on human impacts on the environment.GeomorphologyGeomorphologists study the landforms of the planet, from their development to their disappearance through erosion and other processes.Hazards GeographyAs with many branches of geography, hazards combine work in physical and human geography. Hazard geographers research extreme events known as hazards or disaster and explore the human interac tion and response to these unusual natural or technological events.Mountain GeographyMountain geographers look at the development of mountain systems and at the humans who live in higher altitudes and their adaptations to these environments.Cryosphere GeographyCryosphere geography explores the ice of the earth, especially glaciers and ice sheets. Geographers look at the past distribution of ice on the planet and ice-cause features from glaciers and ice sheets.Arid RegionsGeographers studying arid regions examine the deserts and dry surfaces of the planet. The explore how humans, animals, and plants make their home in dry or arid regions and the use of resources in these regions.Coastal and Marine GeographyWithin coastal and marine geography, there are geographers researching the coastal environments of the planet and how humans, coastal life, and coastal physical features interact.Soils GeographySoil geographers study the upper layer of the lithosphere, the soil, of the earth and it s categorization and patterns of distribution. Other major branches of geography include: Regional Geography Many geographers focus their time and energy on studying a specific region on the planet. Regional geographers focus on areas as large as a  continent  or as small as an urban area. Many geographers combine a regional specialty with a specialty in another branch of geography. Applied Geography Applied geographers use geographic knowledge, skills, and techniques to solve problems in everyday society. Applied geographers are often employed outside of academic environment and work for private firms or governmental agencies. Cartography It has often been said that geography is anything that can be mapped. While all geographers know how to display their research on maps, the branch of  cartography  focuses on improving and developing technologies in map-making. Cartographers work to create useful high-quality maps to show geographic information in the most useful format possible. Geographic Information Systems Geographic Information Systems  or GIS is the branch of geography that develops databases of geographic information and systems to display geographic data in a map-like format. Geographers in GIS work to create layers of geographic data and when layers are combined or utilized together in complex computerized systems, they can provide geographic solutions or sophisticated maps with the press of a few keys. Geographic Education Geographers working in the field of  geographic education  seek to give teachers the skills, knowledge, and tools they need to help combat geographic illiteracy and to develop future generations of geographers. Historical Geography Historical geographers research the human and physical geography of the past. History of Geography Geographers working in the history of geography seek to maintain the history of the discipline by researching and documenting the biographies of geographers and the histories of geographic studies and geography departments and organizations. Remote Sensing Remote sensing  utilizes satellites and sensors to examine features on or near the earths surface from a distance. Geographers in remote sensing analyze data from remote sources to develop information about a place where direct observation is not possible or practical. Quantitative Methods This branch of geography uses mathematical techniques and models to test  hypothesis. Quantitative methods are often used in many other branches of geography but some geographers specialize in quantitative methods specifically.

Separation Of Powers Of Power - 924 Words

Jaspal Singh WRI 1. Sec 32 Rebeca Antoine September 25, 2014 Separation of Powers Separation of Powers is a system in which power is divided between three branches of government. These branches consist of Legislative (Congress), Executive (President), and Judiciary (Supreme Court). Each one of the branches is given a duty to fulfill. If one branch doesn’t fulfill its duties, the other branches can force that branch to fulfill it. There is another system that helps these branches of government to check on each other and limit each other’s powers. It is called Checks and Balances. It helps each branch to limit the power of the other. Each branch has specific duties. The Legislative branch is made to create or repeal laws. The Executive branch executes and enforces the law and the Judiciary branch interprets the laws. The Separation of Powers prevents the power going to one branch. The system prevents the abuse of the power given to each of the branches. The system was used to limit the power of one branch for a reason, now it is used to make obstacles for bills that will help the citizens of this country. The Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances can be seen in action, when a new bill is getting purposed, treaty is being made and when declaring the war against the foreign nation. When a bill get purposed to become a law, it shows all three branches fulfilling their duties. The bill goes through various phases before becoming a law. For instance, if Congress comes upShow MoreRelatedSeparation Of Powers783 Words   |  4 Pageswe have to go to be able to properly lay the divisions of power in the government and implement the separation of powers as written in the Constitution? We must analyze the structure of government to find a means of keeping departments in check. So we can develop this theory, some observations will be noted in order to shape a clearer idea on the structure of government. For a strong substructure to be established for the separate powers of government, each branch must have a different purpose soRead MoreSeparation of Power731 Words   |  3 Pagesdo not wish to abandon the doctrine of separation of power but however, this notion shall follow the Montesquieu approach as he provides for a separation of power that aims at having separate institutions doing separate function by separate personnel and having the checks and balance that will control the powers of these organs. The doctrine of separation of power cannot be abandoned because of the following reasons: The doctrine avoids the abuse of powers. This means that when a single personRead MoreThe Separation Of Powers Of The State And Its Powers912 Words   |  4 Pagesway in which the state is established. In short, it is a framework that explains the structure of the state and its powers. Unlike most modern states, Britain does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one that exists in an abstract sense. It delineates the powers of the different branches of the state, and the restrictions placed on the institutions and on state power. It is comprised of various acts of Parliament, court judgements and conventions that have evolved over a long periodRead MoreSeparation of Powers1967 Words   |  8 Pagesis to defend the assertion that separation of power in Zambia is relative. This essay will begin by giving a brief description of the concept Separation of Powers. executive, legislature and the judiciary. Thereafter, a Main Body shall provide a detailed discussion over the assertion after which a conclusion will b e given to summarise the discussion. According to the online business dictionary, Separation of Powers is a constitutional principle that limits the powers vested in any person or institutionRead MoreThe Separation Of Powers : The New System Of Power1531 Words   |  7 Pages In American Democracy in Peril† Hudson s central argument concerning chapter one Separation of Powers, is that our current system of presidency is inefficient, unresponsive, and unaccountable. That separation of powers has divided and made constantly obstructed government, that is incapable of addressing vital issues moving a majority of the voters. He views the requirement for separation of powers as old, and a significant obstacle to achieving democratic government within the ordinal centuryRead MoreThe Doctrine Of The Separation Of Power1610 Words   |  7 Pagesof the separation of powers has been compromised to a less extent in the nation like Australia. The first section will constitute in exploring the history and the significance of the separation of the power doctrine. In the second section I will discuss about the compromise of the doctrine, especially between the administrator and the legislature with some good cases held in high court. Besides, some clarification will be provided to explain how the philosophical system of separation of power is beingRead MoreThe Division and Separation of Power944 Words   |  4 PagesThe Division and Separation of power are essential to keep our societies rulers to have a restriction on their powers. The importance of each on the Australian domestic law especially in relation to the rule of law, and protecting individual rights, and the legal system. The difference between the division and separation of powers is small. The Division of power is one of the most important aspects of the Constitution. This role is dividing power between the state and Commonwealth parliaments. ThisRead MoreThe Doctrine Of Separation Of Power966 Words   |  4 Pagesdoctrine of separation of power is a vital element of modern, democratic systems of government. At the same time, it will show the basic points of working process in Australian legal system. Callie Harvey declared that only under the condition that separation of power can be maintained between parts of government, the democratic civilisation can be justly ruled. In fact, the legal system in Australia is divided into three branches, which are based on the doctrine of separation of power, with theRead MoreSeparation of Powers in the Constitution895 Words   |  4 Pages The Separation of Powers was simply created to establish a system of checks and balances so that no one particular division of the government could solely control all of our nations business. This makes is so the President does not have dictatorial control. Congress has a form of checked power so they cannot make unfair laws. The Judicial Branch is then not allowed to exceed the power that is given to them by law. It’s a system â€Å"Of the people, by the people, and for the people† allowing us asRead MoreThe Principle Of Separation Of Powers891 Words   |  4 PagesThe method of separa tion of powers was a very important addition to the constitution for the founders of the document. After years of struggling under Great Britain’s regime then finally getting freed, they wanted to make sure they avoided every way of a totalitarian government arising. Thus forth, the founders developed the idea of separation of powers. However, this was the 18th century. Although the creators of the constitution did a great job at developing a long lasting agreement between government

Knowledge and Justified True Belief Free Essays

Prior to Edmund Gettier, philosophers believed that knowledge was equivalent to justified true belief.   Since Plato, it had generally been agreed among philosophers that there are three criteria of propositional knowledge, individually necessary and jointly sufficient (Pryor, 2005; Cushing, 2000).   Before the Gettier philosophy, the following JTB Analysis (justification, truth, and belief) formed the basis of the theory of knowledge: â€Å"S knows that P iff: P is true (truth criterion) S believe that P (belief criterion) S is justified in believing P (justification criterion)† A classic example of the above proposition would be the one by Carl Ginet on fake barns. We will write a custom essay sample on Knowledge and Justified True Belief or any similar topic only for you Order Now    A person is driving through rural Pennsylvania where there are a lot of fake barns: mere wooden fronts that look like barns from the road.   The person driving through is not aware of this and has no reason to suspect it.   As the person looks off to his or her right, and sees something that looks like a barn, then that person believes, â€Å"That’s a barn.†Ã‚   As a matter of fact, it is a barn, as it is one of the few barns in the region which is not a fake.   But then that person would just be lucky.   If he or she had looked at a fake barn instead, then he or she would have believed that it was a barn (Pryor, 2005). In this case then it would seem that the person’s belief that he or she drove by a barn is justified or reasonable simply because it looks like a barn and the person was not informed that the region was full of fake barns.   Then in this case, the person’s belief is also true.   But then the question is if that person knows that he or she is driving by a barn (Pryor, 2005). It seems then that justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge.   It is this theory that Edmund Gettier is criticizing. Exposition Gettier’s main objection is to the claim that justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge.   He presented examples in which the subject has a justified true belief which intuitively fails to count as knowledge (Pryor, 2005).   He does not question whether the three criterion are each necessary.   Rather, what Gather provides is that these propositions are not jointly sufficient.   In other words, Gettier provides that we can justifiably believe the true proposition P but not necessarily know P (Cushing, 2000). In his philosophy, Gettier (1963) makes two important points.   First, the proposition wherein S is justified in believing P is a necessary condition of S’s knowing that P is open to the possibility that a person is justified in believing a proposition that is in fact false. The second point is that for any proposition P, if S is justified in believing P, and P entails Q, and S deduces Q from P and accepts Q as a result of this deduction, then S is justified in believing Q (Gettier, 1963).  Ã‚   Stated differently, these two points represent two assumptions: 1) it is possible for someone to be justified in believing something false; and 2) if S is justified in believing P and P entails Q, then S is justified in believing Q (Cushing, 2000). A classic Gettier example to illustrate these two points or assumptions would be the one about the Ford car.   Suppose a person called Smith has a justified belief   that someone in his office owns a Ford.   It is also true, as a matter of fact, that someone in the office does indeed own a Ford.   However, Smith’s evidence for his belief concerns Jones, from his office, who as it turns out does not own a Ford.   Smith’s belief that someone in the office owns a Ford is true because someone else in the office owns a Ford (not Jones). The person who in fact owns a Ford is actually, for example, called Brown.   Yet all of Smith’s evidence concerns Jones, and not Brown, so it seems that intuitively, Smith doesn’t know that someone in his office owns a Ford.   It would seem then that Smith doesn’t know, even though Smith has a justified belief that someone owns a Ford, and as it turns out, this belief happens to be true (Pryor, 2005). From the above example, it would seem that Smith has a justified belief in a true proposition (in that someone in his office owns a Ford), but this is not to say that he has knowledge of that proposition (since the owner of the Ford is Brown, not Jones, as Smith thought).  Ã‚   What Gettier (1963) thus tells is that even if the three criterion composed of truth, belief, and justification are individually necessary for knowledge, they are not jointly sufficient (Cushing, 2000).   This has been widely called as the Gettier Problem (Pryor, 2005; Cushing, 2000; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006). Thus, the JTB Analysis, previously mentioned as the existing proposition prior to the Gettier problem, does not state a sufficient condition for someone’s knowing a given proposition (Gettier, 1963).  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the example given on the Ford, the Gettier problem arises because of the proposition that a person knows that someone owns a Ford based on evidence that falls short of certainty.   If knowledge requires absolutely certain evidence, then the person Smith in the Ford example would not be in a position to know that someone owns a Ford .   His (Smith’s) evidence after all was not absolutely certain or infallible because he was mistaken as to who owned the Ford (Pryor, 2005). Assuming that Gettier’s philosophy is correct, then a possible solution to the Gettier problem then would be that knowledge is justified true belief where the reasoning on which a person’s belief is based on does not proceed through any false steps or falsehood (Pryor, 2005).   However, the Gettier examples need not involve any inference, so there may be cases of justified true belief in which the subject fails to have knowledge although the S’s belief that P is not inferred from any falsehood. The lesson from the Gettier problem then is that the justification condition by itself cannot ensure that belief that is true cannot be mistakenly identified as knowledge.   Even a justified belief (which is belief based on good evidence), can be true because of luck (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006), such as the example on the Ford car wherein Smith’s belief that someone owns a car is true in the sense that someone (Brown) does indeed own a car, but Smith’s justified belief or good evidence as to the someone who owns the Ford actually pertains to someone else (Jones). Assuming that Gettier is correct, a possible option for working out an account of what knowledge is.  Ã‚   Knowledge is justified true belief absent luck or accident.  Ã‚   Gettier’s fourth condition to knowledge (on the absence of falsehood) is not necessary as his cases indicate that a person can still hold on to a true belief based on luck or accident.   The third criterion in the JTB Analysis, on justification, itself requires that luck be excluded (Sudduth, 2005).   Thus, justified true belief may be sufficient for knowledge only if you eliminate luck or accident. Conclusion According to Gettier (1963), justified true belief can fail to constitute knowledge.   Justified true belief may not be sufficient for knowledge, and he further tells us that the three criterion of truth, belief, and justification are not jointly sufficient.   Gettier proposes a third condition, that true belief should not be based on any falsehood.   However, his philosophy involves the elements of luck or accident which allows the subject to hold on to a true belief.   Thus, it would seem that justified true belief may be sufficient for knowledge providing luck or accident are eliminated from the justification criterion. REFERENCES Cushing, Simon.   (2000).   Edmund Gettier: â€Å"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?†Ã‚   University of Michigan-Flint.   Retrieved November 1, 2006 from Gettier, Edmund L.   (1963).   Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?   Analysis 23: 121-123.   Transcribed into hypertext by Andrew Chrucky, September 13, 1997.   Retrieved November 1, 2006 from: http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html Pryor, Jim.   (Spring 2004).   Theory of Knowledge – The Gettier Problem.   Princeton University.   Retrieved November 1, 2006 from: http://www.jimpryor.net/teaching/courses/epist/notes/gettier.html Sudduth, Michael.   (2005).   Justification and the Gettier Problem.   Dr. Michael Sudduth’s Philosophy Courses Webpage.   Retrieved November 1, 2006 The Analysis of Knowledge.   (January 16, 2006). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.   Retrieved November 1, 2006 from: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/ How to cite Knowledge and Justified True Belief, Essay examples